History and development of schools

History and development of schools

Main article: History of education

Plato's academy, mosaic from Pompeii.

The concept of grouping students together in a centralized location for learning has existed since Classical antiquity. Formal schools have existed at least since ancient Greece (see Academy), ancient Rome (see Education in Ancient Rome) ancient India (see Gurukul), and ancient China (see History of education in China). The Byzantine Empire had an established schooling system beginning at the primary level. According to Traditions and Encounters, the founding of the primary education system began in 425 A.D. and "... military personnel usually had at least a primary education ...". The sometimes efficient and often large government of the Empire meant that educated citizens were a must. Although Byzantium lost much of the grandeur of Roman culture and extravagance in the process of surviving, the Empire emphasized efficiency in its war manuals. The Byzantine education system continued until the empire's collapse in 1453 AD.^[1]

Islam was another culture that developed a school system in the modern sense of the word. Emphasis was put on knowledge, which required a systematic way of teaching and spreading knowledge, and purpose-built structures. At first, mosques combined both religious performance and learning activities, but by the ninth century, the Madrassa was introduced, a proper school that was built independently from the mosque. They were also the first to make theMadrassa system a public domain under the control of the Caliph. The Nizamiyya madrasa is considered by consensus of scholars to be the earliest surviving school, built towards 1066 CE by Emir Nizam Al-Mulk.^{[citation needed]}

Under the Ottomans, the towns of Bursa and Edirne became the main centers of learning. The Ottoman system of Külliye, a building complex containing a mosque, a hospital, madrassa, and public kitchen and dining areas, revolutionized the education system, making learning accessible to a wider public through its free meals, health care and sometimes free accommodation.

One-room school in 1935, Alabama

The nineteenth century historian, Scott holds that a remarkable correspondence exists between the procedure established by those institutions and the methods of the present day. They had their collegiate courses, their prizes for proficiency in scholarship, their oratorical and poetical contests, their commencements and their degrees. In the department of medicine, a severe and prolonged examination, conducted by the most eminent physicians of the capital, was exacted of all candidates desirous of practicing their profession, and such as were unable to stand the test were formally pronounced incompetent.^{[citation needed]}

In Europe during the Middle Ages and much of the Early Modern period, the main purpose of schools (as opposed to universities) was to teach the Latin language. This led to the term grammar school, which in the United States informally refers to a primary school, but in the United Kingdom means a school that selects entrants based on ability or aptitude. Following this, the school curriculum has gradually broadened to include literacy in the vernacular language as well as technical, artistic, scientific and practical subjects.

Mental Calculations. In the school of S.Rachinsky by Nikolay Bogdanov-Belsky. Russia,1895.

Many of the earlier public schools in the United States were one-room schools where a single teacher taught seven grades of boys and girls in the same classroom. Beginning in the 1920s, one-room schools were consolidated into multiple classroom facilities with transportation increasingly provided by kid hacks and school buses.

P2P Software

The word P2P means peer-to-peer computing software or workloads among peers. They are very easy, equally privileged, equipotent participants in the application. They are said to form a peer-to-peer network of nodes. It make's a portion of their resources, such as processing power, disk storage or network bandwidth, directly available to other network participants, without the need for central coordination by servers or stable hosts. Peers are both suppliers and consumers  of resources, in contrast to the traditional client–server model where only servers supply , and clients consume . All these kind of software plays a vital role in work performance. The peer-to-peer application structure was popularized by file sharing systems like Napster. The concept has inspired new
 structures and philosophies in many areas of human interaction. Peer-to-peer networking is not restricted to technology,
but covers also social processes with a peer-to-peer dynamic. In such context, social peer-to-peer processes are currently
emerging throughout society. P2P has two way to define.
Structured P2P and un Structured P2P .
Structured P2P networks employ a globally consistent protocol to ensure that any node can efficiently route a search to some
 peer that has the desired file, even if the file is extremely rare. Such a guarantee necessitates a more structured pattern of overlay links. frostwire 4.20.9 can downloaded for P2P computing.
By far the most common type of structured P2P network is the distributed hash table (DHT), in which a variant of consistent hashing is
used to assign ownership of each file to a particular peer, in a way analogous to a traditional hash table's assignment of each key to a
particular array slot. The another one is an unstructured P2P network.
An unstructured P2P network is  is formed when the overlay links are established arbitrarily. Such networks can be easily constructed as a
new peer that wants to join the network can copy existing links of another node and then form its own links over time. In an unstructured
P2P network, if a peer wants to find a desired piece of data in the network, the query has to be flooded through the network to find as
many peers as possible that share the data. The main disadvantage with such networks is that the queries may not always be resolved.
 Popular content is likely to be available at several peers and any peer searching for it is likely to find the same thing. But if a peer is
 looking for rare data shared by only a few other peers, then it is highly unlikely that search will be successful. Since there is no correlation
between a peer and the content managed by it, there is no guarantee that flooding will find a peer that has the desired data.
Flooding also causes a high amount of signaling traffic in the network and hence such networks typically have very poor search efficiency.
 Many of the popular P2P networks are unstructured.
In pure P2P networks: Peers act as equals, merging the roles of clients and server. In such networks, there is no central server managing the network, neither is there a central router. Some examples of pure P2P Application Layer networks designed for peer-to-peer file sharing are gnutella (pre v0.4) and Freenet.
There also exist hybrid P2P systems, which distribute their clients into two groups: client nodes and overlay nodes. Typically, each client is able to act according to the momentary need of the network and can become part of the respective overlay network used to coordinate the P2P structure. This division between normal and 'better' nodes is done in order to address the scaling problems on early pure P2P networks. As examples for such networks can be named modern implementations of gnutella (after v0.4) and Gnutella2.
Another type of hybrid P2P network are networks using on the one hand central server or bootstrapping mechanisms, on the other hand P2P
for their data transfers. These networks are in general called 'centralized networks' because of their lack of ability to work without their
central server(s). An example for such a network is the eDonkey network (often also called eD2k).

smoking habit

Smoking is a practice in which a substance, most commonly tobacco or cannabis, is burned and the smoke is tasted or inhaled. This is primarily practised as a route of administration for recreational drug use, as combustion releases the active substances in drugs such as nicotine and makes them available for absorption through the lungs. It can also be done as a part of rituals, to induce trances and spiritual enlightenment.

The most common method of smoking today is through cigarettes, primarily industrially manufactured but also hand-rolled from loose tobacco and rolling paper. Other smoking implements include pipes, cigars, bidis, hookahs, vaporizers and bongs. It has been suggested that smoking-related disease kills one half of all long term smokers but these diseases may also be contracted by non-smokers. A 2007 report states that about 4.9 million people worldwide each year die as a result of smoking.

female sexual health

Menstruation (a period) is a major stage of puberty in girls; it's one of the many physical signs that a girl is turning into a woman.

And like a lot of the other changes associated with puberty, menstruation can be confusing. Some girls can't wait to start their periods, whereas others may feel afraid or anxious. Many girls (and guys!) don't have a complete understanding of a woman's reproductive system or what actually happens during the menstrual cycle, making the process seem even more mysterious.

When girls begin to go through puberty (usually starting between the ages of 8 and 13), their bodies and minds change in many ways. The hormones in their bodies stimulate new physical development, such as growth and breast development. About 2 to 2½ years after a girl's breasts begin to develop, she usually gets her first menstrual period.

Nepal's history.

The origin of the word "Nepal" is from the two words "Ne" and "Pala" which was developed as "Nepal" .
The word "Nepal" is believed by scholars to be derived from the word "Nepa:" which refers to the Newar Kingdom, the present day Kathmandu Valley. In early Sanskrit sources (Atharvaveda Parisista)and in Gupta period inscriptions, the country is referred to as Nepala. The Newars of present day Nepal, the inhabitants of the Kathmandu Valley and its peripheries, were referred as "Nepa:" before the advent of Shah dynasty.
Ne Muni
Local legends say that a Hindu sage named "Ne" established himself in the valley of Kathmandu in prehistoric times and that the word "Nepal" came into existence as the place protected ("pala" in Sanskrit) by the sage "Ne". This folk etymology of the name Nepal means, "the country looked after by Ne
He is said to have performed religious ceremonies at Teku, at the confluence of the Bagmati and Bishnumati rivers. and to have selected a pious cowherd to be the first of the many kings of the Gopala Dynasty. These rulers are said to have ruled Nepal for over 500 years. He selected Bhuktaman to be the first king in the line of the Gopala (Cowherd) Dynasty. The Gopala dynasty is said to have ruled for 621 years. Yakshya Gupta was the last king of this dynasty.
However, according to the Skanda Purana, a rishi called "Ne" or "Nemuni" used to live in Himalaya. In the Pashupati Purana, he is mentioned as a saint and a protector. He is said to have practised meditation at the Bagmati and Kesavati rivers  and to have taught there.

Nepali topi

Nepal is a country of  Various Culture, Language  and Dress up. Nepali people ware different kind of dresses  according to the cast and religions. Among Them Dhaka topi (Nepali hat) is one. A Dhaka topi or Nepali topi is a type of hat, popular in Nepal. The hat is made of a fabric called dhaka, which is also used for a type of blouse, a dhaka-ko-cholo.

Dhaka Topi

Nepali Dress

The word topi means "hat" in the Nepali language. Men wear a long kurta dawra suruyal and patuka instead of a belt. Ganesh Man Maharjan created the Nepali topi, in the town of Palpa. Which is also known as palpali topi.
This kind of topi is a part of the Nepali national dress.

Nepali Khukuri.

Khukuri is the national knife of Nepal.An ancient blade-form: khukuris of five hundred years or more hang from the walls of Nepal's National Museum, dating back to the Malla period. Some have suggested that khukuri design is linked to the ancient Greek kopis knife and that the form was introduced into the Indian subcontinent by Alexander's Macedonian army, which invaded north-west India in the 4th-century B.C. If so, then the khukuri is perhaps also linked to the ancient Egyptian kopesh blade, likely the model for the Greek kopis, as well as to the Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian seax. However, it is also possible that the khukuri is simply a design native to the hills of the Himalayas, perhaps originating from an agricultural tool (as which it continues to serve to the present day).



 This seems to be the view of Lord Egerton of Tatton, who writes: '[the Gurkhas'] national weapon is the Kukri , originally a kind of bill-hook, for cutting through small wood in the dense low jungles of the Teraí and the Himalayans' (pg. 100). The Nepalese also use a larger knife, or sword, called a kora, which also has an inner cutting edge like the khukuri. The blades of koras show an expansion near the point, weighting the tip to provide a more powerful downward blow. Koras are generally ceremonial, and as Egerton remarks, 'those who use it skilfully are enabled to cut a sheep in two at a single blow' .